Southwark Biological Recording Project

The Biological Recording Company was commissioned in April 2025 by Southwark Council to deliver a programme of five courses and events in 2025 as part of a wider programme of free-to-attend biodiversity learning opportunities within the London Borough of Southwark. Of the five events we organised, two were training courses and three were outdoor recording events: two Field Recorder Days, one focused on beetles and another on botany, and one Earthworm Sampling Day. This blog shares highlights from this project, with a full report at the bottom of the blog.

🐝 Training Courses

Two one-day biological recording training courses were delivered at sites within the London Borough of Southwark, with subjects aimed at those new to biological recording and an emphasis on developing biological recording skills in Southwark residents. A total of 48 learner days were completed across the two training courses.

Biological Recording 101 took place at the Centre for Wildlife Gardening on 3 June 2025, taught by Keiron Brown with 31 participants. The course highlighted the value of biological recording for understanding and protecting wildlife. Attendees learned to collect and submit species data via iRecord and manage records to support local biodiversity monitoring.

Field ID of Bumblebees took place at The Paper Garden on 9 August 2025, taught by Mark Patterson with 22 attendees. The course covered classroom and field ID of the UK’s “Big 8” species. Participants learned taxonomy, key features, and ID resources, practiced collecting and recording bumblebees via iRecord, and gained skills for planning and running BeeWalk surveys.

🪲 Beetle Field Recorder Day

When: 14th July 2025 | Where: Burgess Park

On the 14th of July we held a Beetle Field Recorder Day in Burgess Park. We had a great turnout: a party thirty beetle enthusiasts strong, with everyone from total newcomers to ardent coleoptera fanatics represented. With beetle specialist Connor Butler heading the team, we worked a way through the varied habitats of this Southwark green space gem over the course of a lovely summer’s day, visiting wildflower meadows, ornamental gardens, urban woodland areas and the margins of the large lake in the park. In total we generated 384 new species occurrence records for the park, including 121 records of 39 different beetle species.

Beetle Field Recorder Day participants (c) Joss Carr

Six highlights from our Beetle Field Recorder Day are shown above.

  1. The weevil Rhinusa neta (Curculionidae) was found on Common Toadflax Linaria vulgaris. This species is a fairly recent arrival, first noticed in the UK in 2019 with re-examined specimens dating back to 2013. The species is currently localised to the Greater London area.
  2. The colourful leaf beetle Podagrica fuscicornis (Chrysomelidae) was found on Malva sylvestris, its main host plant.
  3. Ablattaria laevigata (Silphidae), a large black beetle which uses its long head to suck snails out of their shells, was found under deadwood.
  4. Two chunky green Eurasian Hummingbird Hawkmoth (Macroglossum stellatarum) caterpillars were found feeding on a large patch of Lady’s Bedstraw (Galium verum) in a gardened section of the park.
  5. The Nationally Scarce (Notable B) leafhopper Euscelidius variegatus, was swept from an area of rough dry grassland.
  6. The gorgeous Paropsisterna selmani (Chrysomelidae) was found near Glengall Wharf Garden. This large non-native beetle is originally from Australia, having arrived in the UK in 2007. It feeds exclusively on Eucalyptus and so has been flagged as a potential pest to arboriculture.

🌿 Botany Field Recorder Day

When: 24th September 2025 | Where: Belair Park & Dulwich Park

On 24th September we were back in Southwark, this time in the south of the borough, with botany as our focus and Dr Mark Spencer leading the event. Botany proved to be even more popular than beetles – a record-breaking 38 attendees showed up ready to record the flora of Belair Park and Dulwich Park. With a record-breaking number of attendees and a huge variety of plant species across the two parks, it was unsurprising that we also smashed our previous records for total number of biological records generated: 577 records, including 477 records of 154 different plant species. That’s a good 200 more records than our previous high score: a seriously sterling effort from everyone involved.

Botany specialist Mark Spencer demonstrates plant field identification characters in Dulwich Park (c) Joss Carr

Six highlights from our Botany Field Recorder Day are shown above:

  1. A large patch of the uncommonly encountered Stellaria aquatica (Water Chickweed) was found in a damp area near the lake in Belair Park.
  2. Ononis × pseudohircina, the hybrid between Ononis repens and Ononis spinosa was found in a dry, disturbed area in Dulwich Park.
  3. Gnaphalium uliginosum (Marsh Cudweed) was abundant in the dried-out reservoir in the north-west corner of Belair Park was, among several other unusual plants typical of ‘draw-down’ zones (a scarce habitat in Greater London).
  4. The non-native North American Silphium laciniatum (Compass Plant) was proliferating alarmingly in both the dried-reservoir in Belair Park and a disturbed area in Dulwich Park. It has been flagged to site managers as warranting removal.
  5. The hybrid willow Salix × capreola (S. aurita × S. caprea) was among several hybrid willows in the dried-out reservoir in Belair Park.
  6. Ambrosia artemisifolia, another non-native species from North America, was another surprising find in Belair Park. This species is wind-pollinated and, where the plant is abundant, its pollen is a major contributor to hay fever.

🪱 Earthworm Sampling Day

When: 1st October 2025 | Where: Galleywall Nature Reserve & Rouel Road Estate Community Orchard

A group of 15 volunteers joined Keiron Derek Brown on 1st October to conduct earthworm sampling at two small locally managed sites in the north-east of Southwark: Galleywall Nature Reserve and Rouel Road Estate Community Orchard. Earthworms were collected at both sites through a range of soil pit sampling, vermifuge extraction and microhabitat searches. Specimens were collected into ethanol and identified using a microscope at a later date. As a result of the day’s efforts, 55 new species occurrence records were generated, of which 31 were earthworm records representing 11 different earthworm species.

Hand sorting soil samples in search of earthworms (c) Liam Nash
Pie chart displaying the composition of earthworms detected by species at Galleywall Nature Reserve. Pie chart slice colours indicate the functional group of the represented species (c) Biological Recording Company

Galleywall Nature Reserve had a high diversity of species, with four functional groups of earthworms represented. The use of manure to enrich the soil appears to have increased the proportion of litter dweller species present (e.g. Eisenia andrei/fetida agg and Dendrobaena veneta). The absence of deep bioturbators found could be a result of the disturbance from recent conservation works or due to the recent dry weather.

Rouel Road Estate Community Orchard, in contrast, yielded very few earthworms during the survey. Only two of the functional groups were represented (shallow bioturbators and burrowers) and only three species were found. It is likely that the earthworm population will improve with wetter weather (it was a very dry summer/early autumn) and as the orchard matures. The addition of deadwood resources has also been suggested to site managers.

Pie chart displaying the composition of earthworms detected by species across all surveys at Rouel Road
Estate Community Orchard. Pie chart slice colours indicate the functional group of the represented species (c) Biological Recording Company

Project Achievements

Across the three events summarised above, 83 people were engaged in biological recording, 1,048 new biological records were generated and 400 different species were recorded. The vast majority of the species found represent first records for the respective sites. All records contribute towards building a picture of the biodiversity present in Southwark and will inform future conservation management work. As always, our data is gathered through iRecord so it is automatically accessible to Greenspace Information for Greater London (GiGL) and the relevant National Recording Schemes & Societies.

You can read the full report covering all of our recording activities and achievements in Southwark below:

Southwark Field Recorder Day Report v1 23.10.2025Download

A huge thank you to everyone who joined us at our events in Southwark this summer and autumn. It was great to see so many people – both Southwark residents and enthusiasts from further afield – enjoying green spaces and recording wildlife in green spaces in this lovely London borough. A big thanks also to Liam Nash (Southwark Biodiversity Officer) for commissioning these events and being generally awesome, and to our specialists Mark Spencer, Connor Butler and Keiron Brown for their knowledge and guidance. Finally, thank you to the London Natural History Society for helping to promote the events. We hope to see everyone at future Biological Recording Company events!

This series of events were delivered by the Biological Recording Company in partnership with Southwark Council and the London Natural History Society (LNHS).

Biological Recording Projects

At the Biological Recording Company, we specialise in planning and delivering projects centred around recording wildlife and training naturalists.

  • London Recording Projects involve the delivery of events from our Field Recorder Day, Invertebrate Study Day, Earthworm Sampling Day and Training Course programmes. Examples include:
    • Site-based projects, such as Wild Tolworth, Ealing Beaver Project and Lesnes 500.
    • Borough-based projects, such as our Southwark and Barnet projects.
  • Earthworm Projects range from identification training and earthworm surveys to research and consultation. Example include:
    • Engagement-focused projects, such as delivering earthworm recorder training in Northern Ireland and working with farmers in the Chilterns.
    • Research-focused projects, such as looking at the impact of hay meadow restoration on earthworm communities, assessing the effectiveness of regenerative farming practices and investigating the use of AI in earthworm identification.
  • National Biological Recording Projects entail putting our expertise to use with helping other organisations improve the biological recording processes and reach new audiences.
Have a project in mind? Get in touch!

Recording Plant Galls at Lesnes Abbey Woods

Joss Carr recounts the Plant Gall Field Recorder Day held at Lesnes Abbey Woods on Saturday 20th September 2025. We also share guidance recording plant galls and details of similar upcoming events.

Lesnes Abbey Woods is a rather special place. Situated in the southeast London borough of Bexley, the site makes up a whopping 88 hectares of ancient woodland, park, heathland and grassland. Two of these habitats – ancient woodland and heathland – are very scarce in Greater London. The site therefore supports populations of some quite uncommon species of plants, fungi and insects. At the Biological Recording Company we are big fans of Lesnes – we’ve been running events here since we started in 2023. A mild autumnal day in September this year brought us back to the site to focus on recording a novel group of organisms: plant galls.

The ruined abbey at Lesnes Abbey Woods (c) Keiron Brown

Plant galls are funny things. They are abnormal growths of plant tissue caused by the invasion of another organism – a wasp, a fly, a mite, a fungus or a bacterium, for example – within the plant tissue. Galls typically form on leaves, stems, roots, or flowers and come in an astonishing variety of shapes, sizes and colours. The structure itself forms due to the plant’s response to irritation or chemical signals from the invading organism. Galls provide food and shelter for the invading organism inside and, while they may look unusual, are generally not harmful to the overall health of the plant.

Common Spangle Galls on Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea) caused by the wasp Neuroterus quercusbaccarum (c) Joss Carr

Easily the best place to look for galls is on oak trees – around 50 different gall-causing species are known from oaks in the UK. It is convenient, therefore, that Lesnes Abbey Woods is home to rather a lot of oaks. Our enthusiastic group of 17 started the day at a particular impressive Turkey Oak (Quercus cerris) near the Lesnes Abbey lodge. Under the experienced guidance of LNHS Plant Gall recorder Tommy Root – our specialist for the day – we identified several galls caused on this one tree, including the galls of Aceria cerrea and Andricus grossulariae (below).

Looking for galls on Turkey Oak (Quercus cerris) (c) Joss Carr
Bulge-like deformations on the upper surface of a Turkey Oak (Quecus cerris) leaf caused by the mite Acerica cerrea (c) Joss Carr
Rounded woody galls on Turkey Oak (Quercus cerris) catkins caused by the sexual generation of the wasp Andricus grossulariae (c) Joss Carr

We then made our way about twenty metres north to an English Oak (Quercus robur) and found another few species. On the tree itself we found the bright green and sticky galls of the agamic (asexual) generation of Andricus grossulariae growing on acorn cups. This is the same species responsible for the rounded, nut-like galls on the neighbouring Turkey Oak. We also found a single example of the Ram’s Horn Gall caused by the wasp Andricus aries, and the floor beneath this oak was littered with thousands of fallen woody Knopper Galls (Andricus quercuscalicis).

Gall on English Oak (Quercus robur) caused by the agamic (asexual) generation of the wasp Andricus grossulariae (c) Joss Carr

We continued to mill around the parkland area in the morning, checking all of the ornamental trees closely. Additional exciting gall finds here included the artichoke-like galls of the midge Taxomyia taxi on Yew (Taxus baccata), pouch-like swellings caused by the midge Dasineura urticae on Common Nettle (Urtica dioica), and galling caused by the mite Acalitus brevitarsus on the leaves of Italian Alder (Alnus cordata). Though not typically considered galls, several powdery mildews – a group of fungi which form white dusting on plants during autumn – were also spotted, including the uncommonly recorded Golovinomyces bolayi on Prickly Lettuce Lactuca serriola.

Artichoke-like gall of Taxomyia taxi on Yew Taxus baccata (c) Joss Carr
Looking very closely at trees in the park (c) Joss Carr

After a productive lunch where we spent time identifying some collected specimens, we were keen for a change of habitat so moved onto the northern margin of the woodland. A particularly good Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea) tree here yielded an additional four galls for the list, all found on the leaf undersides and caused by small wasps in the family Cynipidae: Neuroterus anthracinus, Neuroterus numismalis, Neuroterus quercusbaccarum and Cynips disticha. The former even had the wasp itself sitting on its gall (see below)! We also found that leaves of the shrubby elms along the woodland margin were covered with small pustule galls caused by the mite Aceria campestricola.

Oyster Gall and Neuroterus anthracinus on Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea) (c) Joss Carr
Common Spangle Gall caused by Neuroterus quercusbaccarum on Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea) (c) Joss Carr
Silk-Button Galls caused by the wasp Neuroterus numismalis, on Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea) (c) Joss Carr
Gall caused by Cynips disticha on Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea) (c) Joss Carr

We rounded off the day by splitting up into groups. Some continued along the woodland margin and some ventured into the woodland itself a little way. Additions to the site list from the woodland margin group included the fungus Taphrina populina, which forms galls on the leaves of Black Poplar and its hybrids (Populus sect. Aigeiros), the wasp Ophelimus maskelli, which forms leaf pustule galls on Eucalyptus trees, and the mite Vasates quadripedes, which forms leaf pustules on Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum). The woodland interior group recorded the midge Hartigiola annulipes, which forms ‘lighthouse galls’ on Beech (Fagus sylvatica) and the non-native wasp Dryocosmus kuriphilus, which forms galls on Sweet Chestnut (Castanea sativa) and is a recent arrival in the UK (circa 2015). Seeing D. kuriphilus was particularly fitting as Lesnes Abbey Woods was one of the first UK sites at which the species was found!

Inspecting a poplar for galls (c) Joss Carr
Taphrina populina on black poplar or one of its hybrids (Populus sect. Aigeiros) (c) Joss Carr
Galls of Vasates quadripedes on Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum) (c) Joss Carr
Gall caused by Dryocosmus kuriphilus on Sweet Chestnut (Castanea sativa) (c) Joss Carr

All in all, the day was a resounding success with the group generating an impressive 187 records including 122 records of 44 gall-causing species. Those 44 gall-causing species included 15 mites, 3 fungi, 14 wasps, 4 true bugs and 8 midges. A big thanks to all who attended and we hope you enjoyed hunting for this obscure but fascinating group of organisms with us. Extra special thanks go to Tommy Root – our plant gall specialist – for leading the group and to Ian Holt and the team at Lesnes Abbey Woods for contracting us to run this event. We hope to see you at the next one!

This event was run as a collaboration between the Biological Recording Company and Lesnes Abbey Woods as part of the Lesnes 500 project funded by the National Lottery Heritage Fund.

Field Recorder Days

All of our London Field Recorder Day events are free to attend, and all of the data is collated through iRecord and shared with Greenspace Information for Greater London (GiGL). We work closely with the London Natural History Society and they partner with us on our Field Recorder Day programme.

We’ll be returning to Lesnes Abbey Woods for the following Field Recorder Days in 2026:

  • Beetle Field Recorder Day 24 Mar 2026
  • Mollusc Field Recorder Day 23 Apr 2026
  • General Field Recorder Day 16 May 2026

We’ll also be back out in the field with Tommy for another Plant Gall Field Recorder Day at the Welsh Harp Open Space in 2026:

  • Plant Gall Field Recorder Day 19 Sep 2026 at Welsh Harp (Barnet)
Learn more about our Field Recorder Days

Recording Plant Galls

You don’t need to go to Lesnes Abbey Woods to record plant galls. Getting started with recording any group can be intimidating, so we’re here to offer a few tips.

  1. Get an identification guide: The bible for British plant gall identification is the British Plant Galls AIDGAP from the Field Studies Council, featuring around 300 keys, organised alphabetically by host plant genus. It may also be worth considering the Britain’s Plant Galls WILDGuide, particularly if you prefer photographic guides. Whilst it’s less comprehensive, it features 200 of the most common and conspicous plant galls in good detail with photos.
  2. Record gall specifics: When recording galls, it is important to also record the host plant (as well as the gall causer) and the generation type. Many gall-inducing insects, particularly oak gall wasps (cynipids), have complex life cycles that alternate between distinct sexual (gamic) and asexual (agamic) generations. Often, each generation produces a gall that is structurally different from the other and may occur on different parts of the same host plant or even different host plant species.
  3. Take photos: Photos of plant galls are very useful for specialists wishing to confirm that your identification is correct. Plant galls don’t move so they are much easier to photograph than other groups such as mammals and invertebrates
  4. Submit your records: Like many groups, plant galls are under-recorded – so even records of common plant galls are really useful. You can submit a list of plant galls for a host via iRecord. Don’t forget to include any picture that you’ve taken!
  5. Join the British Plant Gall Society: Founded in 1985, the Society’s principal aim is to encourage and support the study of plant galls. They welcome new members of all experience levels, and the British Plant Gall Society website is a treasure trove of information (including upcoming events).
Neuroterus numismalis (c) Keiron Brown
Andricus grossulariae (c) Keiron Brown
Various galls on Sessile Oak Quercus petraea (c) Keiron Brown

Recording London’s Fungi

This blog recounts two Fungi Field Recorder Days we ran in London in October 2025, the first at Tolworth Court Farm (Kingston) and the second in Lesnes Abbey Woods (Bexley). By Joss Carr.

Whilst most of the general public mourn the end of the summer and the onset of the shorter, colder and darker days that signal autumn, the humble natural history enthusiast may find autumn a particularly exciting time of year. The reason? Fungi.

As deciduous foliage begins to decay, leaf litter accumulates, and dampness encroaches, a whole host of fungi begin to adorn our grasslands and woodlands. Brackets, boletes, bonnets, inkcaps, saddles, crusts, polypores, staghorns… the list goes on. With nearly 15,000 described fungi species currently known from the UK, and many obscure ones yet to be found, there is undoubtedly plenty for the budding mycologist to get stuck into learning. And that’s true even in London, thanks to the wonderful network of nature reserves and green spaces under protection in our city.

Amanita muscaria (Fly Agaric) at Lesnes Abbey Woods (c) Joss Carr

Fungi at Tolworth Court Farm

On Wednesday 15th October we ran a Fungi Field Recorder Day in partnership with Citizen Zoo at Tolworth Court Farm (Kingston) as part of the Wild Tolworth project. We had record high number of attendees: a whopping forty enthusiastic fungi enthusiasts! Field Recorder Days at Tolworth Court Farm started in 2022, so it’s a site that we know well. We recorded fungi here back here in 2024 and found 16 different species, so we were keen to see if we could add any species to the site list this year. As in 2024, our party was helmed by our resident botany and mycology specialist, the ever-wonderful Mark Spencer.

Recording fungi at Tolworth Court Farm Fields (c) Joss Carr
Identifying fungi finds from Tolworth Court Farm Fields (c) Joss Carr

With such a large group, we wanted to try out a new format on this event. We split into groups and directed each group to search for fungi in different 100-metre grid cells across the site. After a 15–30 minute search session in each cell we would then reconvene to go through specimens, identify our finds, and record the species. This method aims for reasonably widespread sampling across the site.

A Panaeolus species (c) Joss Carr
Bolbitius titubans from Tolworth Court Farm Fields (c) Joss Carr

Highlights from our fungal finds from the day included large patches of a Paneolus species, growing from dead wood in Tolworth Court Farm Moated Manor. We also found numerous specimens of Laccaria laccata (Deceiver), the slimy yellow Pholiota gummosa (Sticky Scalycap) and Armillaria mellea (Honey Fungus) across the site. The attractive yellow Bolbitius titubans was also abundant in the grassland edges. Blushing Bracket Daedaleopsis confragosa was commonly spotted on trees.

Fun fact: the genus name Daedaleopsis is derived from the greek mythological figure Daedalus – the creator of the labyrinth in which the minotaur resided. The labyrinth-like gills of Daedaleopsis confragosa (see photo on right) are named in this character’s honour! Another notable find was Dichomitus campestris (Hazel Porecrust), a rarely recorded but relatively distinctive crust-forming species on deadwood.

Daedaleopsis confragosa (Blushing Bracket) from Tolworth Court Farm Fields (c) Joss Carr
Autalia impressa from Tolworth Court Farm Fields (c) Joss Carr

Often when collecting fungi you stumble upon unexpected stowaways. A particularly manky Meripilus giganteus (Giant Polypore) yielded several such stowaways, most excitingly the tiny (2.6 mm) staphylinid beetle Autalia impressa (pictured left), which feeds on fungi. Tolworth Court Farm seems to be only the fourth site this species has been found in London!

Since our last visit there has been one very notable change at Tolworth Court Farm: earthworks have begun for the creation of a new wetland! Covering a considerable area alongside the Hogsmill river, and fit with its very own shiny new bridge, this area is set to be re-colonised by nature as part of the ongoing rewilding project on site. Hopefully it will soon become attractive to a range of wetland plants, invertebrates and larger animals, helping make a considerable boost to Tolworth Court Farm’s already not-unimpressive biodiversity.

Fungi at Lesnes Abbey Woods

On Tuesday 28th October we were at Lesnes Abbey Woods (Bexley) yet again in search of fungi – this time in partnership with Bexley Council. Like Tolworth Court Farm, Lesnes Abbey Woods is a site at which we have run multiple Field Recorder Days in the past, although this was our first day at the site focused on Fungi. The Lesnes team are making a real push to generate biological records this and next year as part of a National Lottery-funded project ‘Lesnes 500‘, which celebrates a century since the publication of a seminal natural history text focused on the abbey’s famous woodland. We are very excited to be involved! This Fungi Field Recorder Day had another big showing, so we again divided into smaller groups and each tackled a grid cell. We also greatly benefited from the indoor tables and chairs in the Lesnes Lodge building which allowed groups to lay out and organise their fungi specimens over lunch and in the afternoon, ready for identification.

Fungi finds from Lesnes Abbey Woods (c) Joss Carr
Working together to organise and identify specimens (c) Joss Carr

In the morning we focused on the northern woodland edge, with four groups each tackling an 100x100m grid cell. Some of the species found in this session are shown in the photo collage below.

(1) Psathyrella candolleana (Pale Brittlestem) (c) Kirsty Meekings; (2) Gymnopus fusipes (Spindle Toughshank) (c) Rachel Garner; (3) Chlorophyllum rhacodes (Shaggy Parasol) (c) Rachel Garner; (4) Daldinia concentrica (King Alfred’s Cakes) (c) Rachel Garner; (5) Basidioradulum radula (Toothed Crust) (c) Joss Carr; (6) Tricholoma sulphureum (c) Kirsty Meekings; (7) Iliosporiopsis christansenii, a tiny pink lichenicolous fungus growing on Physcia adscendens (c) Jason Lok; (8) Mycena arcangeliana (Angel’s Bonnet); (9) Xerocomellus pruinatus (Matt Bolete) (c) Joss Carr

In the afternoon we headed up to the small heathland in the south of Lesnes Abbey Woods. This is one of the few remaining heathlands in the whole of Greater London, and is kept in good condition thanks to the protection and care of the Lesnes Abbey Woods team. It is an important site for many scarce heathland-associated species in London, including Peltigera lichen and several heathland mosses.

In terms of fungi, highlights included a attractive patch of the bracket fungus Trametes betulina (Birch Mazegill) which, interestingly, was growing from an English Oak (Quercus robur) stump (pictured right), and a few particularly good specimens of the red and white Amanita muscaria (Fly Agaric).

More unusual finds on the heath included the jelly-like Phaeotremella foliacea (Leafy Brain), the red-stemmed Gymnopus erythropus (Redleg Toughshank) and the maroon Cortinarius decipiens. The latter is particularly rarely recorded in London with Lesnes Abbey Woods being only the second site with records on iRecord. The heathland also proved very productive for Russula (Brittlegills) with three different species found by Mark Spencer: R. ionochlora (Oilslick Brittlegill), R. betularum (Birch Brittlegill) and R. velenovskyi (Coral Brittlegill).

Trametes betulina (Birch Mazegill) on an oak tree stump (c) Joss Carr
Sharing fungi finds on the heathland (c) Joss Carr

Many thanks to everyone who came along to our Fungi Field Recorder Days in October 2025. It was great to see so many people out and about learning about and recording fungi. All records generated from these two events are now available for anyone to view on iRecord, and reports with interpretation of the species lists will be published in the future. An extra special thanks is due also to Mark Spencer, our mycology tutor, for his invaluable assistance on both of these events, and a big thanks to Elliot Newton and co. (Tolworth Court Farm) and Ian Holt and co. (Lesnes Abbey Woods) for contracting us to run events. See you at the next one!

One last thing – if you are someone who records fungi in the UK, we would love to hear your thoughts on the experience in our Fungus Recorder Survey. In collaboration with the British Mycological Society, we are currently reviewing the protocols and approaches for fungi recording and verification in the UK. We are really keen to hear all about how people currently find the experience of recording fungi and having their records verified, so that we can identify what we can improve in the future. You can find out more about the project on our webpage: The Fungus Verification Consultation Project.

Read the full blog here

More Moths Please! Breeding and Reintroducing the Dark Bordered Beauty

The Dark Bordered Beauty (Epione vespertaria) is a striking moth that, within the UK, is currently restricted to just three sites; two in Scotland and one in York. To help restore this species and safeguard it for the future, RZSS, in partnership with the Rare Invertebrates in the Cairngorms Project, is running a conservation breeding programme providing hundreds of eggs, caterpillars, and moths for release into new sites in the Cairngorms National Park. Helen will give more information on this remarkably rare species, provide the latest news on how the conservation programme is progressing, and detail some of the challenges faced by her team in trying to breed a moth species that is so rarely seen in the wild

Q&A with Georgina Lindsay

Georgina Lindsay is a conservation manager at the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland (RZSS). She manages all of RZSS’ native invertebrate breeding and reintroduction programmes, including dark bordered beauty moths, pine hoverflies, medicinal leeches, and pond mud snails, as well as the field surveys for species such as blood red longhorn beetles and small scabious mining bees. She also oversees the Biodiversity Action Plan for Highland Wildlife Park, including areas such as forestry management and wading bird nest monitoring.

1. Do Dark-bordered Beauty Moth larvae only feed on Aspen? How do we know?

We know that Dark-bordered Beauty Moth larvae feed on Aspen (Populus tremula) at the two Scotland sites because they are almost exclusively found on this host plant there. At the one site in England, in Yorkshire, Creeping Willow (Salix repens) appears to be an alternative known host plant for the larvae. All our conservation breeding work in Scotland has so far used Aspen but we are interested to potentially trial feeding of Scottish larvae on Creeping Willow in the future.

2. How big of a stand of Aspen is needed to support a Dark-bordered Beauty Moth population?

The short answer is we don’t know. Aspen stands size varies between all the sites we work on – both founder sites and release sites. At the Strensall site in Yorkshire, there is no Aspen, and they rely on Creeping Willow, which is an alternative larval food plant here. In the conservation breeding programme, we’re finding that the caterpillars only need a relatively small amount of Aspen to grow to maturity. At our facility we’ve found that 20 caterpillars can be easily supported by six small suckering Aspen trees. This suggest that it’s not the quantity of food per se which is the limiting factor behind their scarce distribution, but instead that disconnected aspen stands are limiting natural dispersal and the colonisation of new sites.

3. Do Dark-bordered Beauty Moth larva only pupate in moss?

In our conservation breeding programme for the Dark-bordered Beauty Moth, we used a bed of Sphagnum moss to provide an area for the caterpillars to pupate. The choice to do this was informed by using similar substrate to that found at the Strathspey founder site. That being the case, it is certainly possible that the moth can pupate on or in other substrates. We have noticed in some of our enclosures that the larvae have successfully pupated on bare ground. It’s also possible that they can pupate within soil, however we have not trialled this due to foreseen difficulties with re-locating pupae within the soil (given they might burrow down into it).

4. Is there a pheromone lure for Dark-bordered Beauty Moths?

Not at the moment. The process of creating a pheromone lure can be quite complex; for example, you need to collect a lot of adult individuals. It’s not something we have spoken much about yet in the context of the Dark-bordered Beauty Moth because so far we have had success with locating adults at known sites using standard light-trapping techniques and transects. Pheromone luring could potentially be a possibility down the line though.

5. Is research into the ecology of this species ongoing?

Whilst my personal focus is on the conservation breeding and reintroduction programme, as a team and steering group focused on conserving the Dark-bordered Beauty Moth we are very keen to find out everything there is to know about the ecology of this moth. Interesting potential ecological research questions are often brought up in steering group meetings. For example, nearly all the current knowledge of feeding preferences is based on observation of the larvae ex situ in the breeding facility. How might feeding preferences differ in situ? If any prospective Master’s or PhD students are interested in working with us to answer questions like this we would welcome you to get in touch. You can contact the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland (RZSS) at conservation@rzss.org.uk.  

Further Info

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entoLIVE webinars feature guest invertebrate researchers delving into their own invertebrate research. All events are free to attend and are suitable for adults of all abilities – a passion for invertebrates is all that’s required!

entoLIVE is delivered by the Biological Recording Company in partnership with the British Entomological & Natural History Society, Royal Entomological Society and Amateur Entomologists’ Society, with support from Buglife, Field Studies Council and National Biodiversity Network Trust.

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Getting to Know Weevils

Weevils are one of the UK’s most diverse groups of beetles, with around 550 species currently known to occur here. You will find weevils every time you go and look for insects, but they have a reputation for being difficult to identify. In this talk, Mark introduces the different groups present in the UK, and outlines how you can get to know them better.

Q&A with Mark Gurney

Mark Gurney is one of the organisers of the UK Weevil Recording Scheme and is responsible for the production and maintenance of a range of identification guides for the British species.

1. How can I identify a weevil I have found?

I’ve produced a range of identification guides for the different groups of UK weevils, all of which you can find here: tinyurl.com/weevilguides. My photo albums for UK weevils may also be helpful and can be found here: tinyurl.com/weevilalbums. There is also a Facebook page (not created by me!) where you can pose identification queries: Weevils of Britain. If you have a photo you can add it as a record to iNaturalist or iRecord.

2. What’s the best time of year to look for weevils?

Looking at the group as a whole, the annual peak in diversity, numbers, and activity is around April-May-June. That being said, if you only look during the Spring there are some species you may miss, and many species have population peaks later in the year. Ultimately, there are weevils to be found at any time of year. This even includes during winter as most species live over winter as adults. You have to put in more effort to find weevils during winter, though, as those that are around are less active. Grubbing around beneath vegetation or within grass tussocks is one method that can work well in the colder months, as can sifting leaf litter.

3. What do weevils eat?

As larvae, many weevils feed on a specific group of closely related plants (e.g. one species, genus or family of plants). Knowledge of host plant can therefore be a good clue for identifying the weevil species found. There are, however, some groups of weevils which are more generalist ‘polyphagous’ feeders, such as the broad-nosed weevils (family: Curculionidae; subfamily: Entiminae). Adult weevils may remain on the same plant they fed on as larvae, but they can and do move to other plants. For example, a species which feeds on legumes in summer might move to shrubs during autumn for shelter over the winter.

4. Are there any non-native weevil species in the UK?

Currently we recognise 547 total species of weevil (excluding the bark beetles) as established in the UK. At least 50 of these are non-native. Many of the non-native species are broad-nosed weevils or weevils associated with decaying wood and timber. A lot of new species are coming in through the horticultural trade.

5. How well studied and recorded are weevils?

There is still loads for us to learn and find. Speaking personally, it’s a bad year if I don’t find at least one weevil species new to my county, just by going around looking in the area where I live. The opportunity for anyone to make a difference by contributing is huge. By simply putting your records on iRecord or iNaturalist you will undoubtedly be putting new dots on the maps. There are also likely a fair few new species waiting to be found in the UK, both new arrivals and long-overlooked native species. With climate change and ever-increasing global trade, we are finding new weevil species to the UK every year. There are also some gaps regarding feeding preferences, i.e., there are some species for which we do not currently know the plants the weevil feeds on, so opportunity to get involved there too.

Further Info

entoLIVE

entoLIVE webinars feature guest invertebrate researchers delving into their own invertebrate research. All events are free to attend and are suitable for adults of all abilities – a passion for invertebrates is all that’s required!

entoLIVE is delivered by the Biological Recording Company in partnership with the British Entomological & Natural History Society, Royal Entomological Society and Amateur Entomologists’ Society, with support from Buglife, Field Studies Council and National Biodiversity Network Trust.

The entoLIVE programme is delivered by Biological Recording Company and receives sponsorship from the following organisations:

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From Strandline to Science: The Journey of a Shark Eggcase

The Great Eggcase Hunt encourages people to get out on the beach in search of mermaids purses – the eggcases of sharks and skate. Each species has a distinct design so, once found, you can identify which species it once belonged to, before recording them to the Shark Trust. Find out how the Great Eggcase Hunt has evolved over the past 22 years, what it has discovered during that time, and how you can get involved as a citizen scientist.

Q&A with Cat Gordon

Cat Gordon is the Senior Conservation Officer at the Shark Trust – a UK conservation charity working globally to safeguard the future of sharks, skates and rays. She leads the Community Engagement programme and is responsible for citizen science initiatives such as the Great Eggcase Hunt and the Basking Shark Project. She’s previously been involved in developing a number of conservation planning documents for highly threatened species, and is now working on developing a new project called Living with Sharks.

1. What triggers eggcases to pop open?

When the developing shark or skate is ready to emerge, the eggcase will naturally open along the top seam (between the upper two horns or upper tendrils). The growth of the embryo within the eggcase causes the capsule to pop open (pre-opening) once the developing shark or skate reaches the appropriate size – almost like they’re bursting out. They will then need to wiggle their way out of the capsule to break free. The eggcase will only ever open naturally along that top seam. If you find an eggcase with a hole or split elsewhere this will have been caused by predation, e.g., by a crab or mollusc, or if washed ashore it could be from a bird pecking the eggcase capsule.

2. What determines the shape and size of an eggcase?

The general shape is determined by which taxonomic family or order it belongs to. There are five orders and 13 families that are oviparous (egg-laying). However, the exact shape and features (e.g. whether there are keels or tendrils) are unique to each species. Skate eggcases are usually square or rectangular in shape, often with a pointed horn on each corner; catshark eggcases are usually oblong shaped, almost like a bowling pin and may have tendrils extending from the corners; horn sharks have spiral shaped eggcases like a corkscrew; carpetsharks are rounder in shape and may have very short horns; and chimaeras are spindle or leaf shaped.

Beyond that, it is also worth noting that environmental conditions (e.g. water temperature) may impact characteristics of the eggcase, particularly size and colour, with the latter being quite variable amongst the eggcases of some species (such as the Smallspotted Catshark). It is also true that the larger species generally have larger eggcases, for example, the Flapper Skate reaches 2-3m in length and its eggcase capsule is amongst the largest that can be found at around 20cm.

3. Is it okay to take eggcases home and keep them?

As far as we know, empty eggcases do not serve a secondary purpose in the seashore environment, unlike seaweed which decomposes and provides vital habitats and food sources for many organisms, as well as contributing to nutrient cycling. In fact, eggcases don’t seem to break down at all, we’ve had many eggcase hunters attempt to compost them in home compost bins, but they come out the same as they go in! We therefore believe it’s acceptable to take empty eggcases home if you wish to and if anything, it will prevent duplicate counting if someone finds and reports that same eggcase after you. That being said, if taking part in the Great Eggcase Hunt, you never have to collect the eggcases, and so it is always personal choice.

If you do wish to collect eggcases, make sure you are 100% certain they are empty. Admittedly, the shark/skate embryo inside doesn’t stand a good chance of surviving once its eggcase has washed up on the beach, but there is always a chance so we’d advice that you return any you suspect have content to the sea, ideally anchored down in a secure spot.

4. Is it worth uploading photos of eggcases that you saw several years ago?

Absolutely! If you’ve got photos of an eggcase with a reliable date and location, you can record it to the Great Eggcase Hunt at www.sharktrust.org/greateggcasehunt or via the Shark Trust citizen science app, regardless of when it was from. You can also submit eggcases from anywhere in the world!

5. What are the main threats to sharks and rays in British waters?

The main threat to sharks and rays is overfishing. That is true irrespective of which part of the ocean they are in. Globally, a third of all sharks, rays and chimaeras are threatened with extinction risk, and this is primarily due to overfishing. Sharks are inherently vulnerable as they are long lived, late to mature, and produce few young, meaning they are unable to replenish their populations quickly. In addition, many sharks and rays are highly migratory and so may cross multiple country borders. International collaboration is therefore required through international fishing agreements and coordination through Regional Fishery Management Organisation bodies to ensure they are suitably managed across their range. There are other threats to sharks and rays, such as habitat destruction and pollution, but they are secondary to overfishing.

Literature References

  1. Ellis et al. (2024) ‘The distribution of the juvenile stages and eggcases of skates (Rajidae) around the British Isles’: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/aqc.4149
  2. Gordon et al. (2016) ‘Descriptions and revised key to the eggcases of the skates (Rajiformes: Rajidae) and catsharks (Carcharhiniformes: Scyliorhinidae) of the British Isles’: https://www.mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.4150.3.2

Further Info

marineLIVE

marineLIVE webinars feature guest marine biologists talking about their research into the various organisms that inhabit our seas and oceans, and the threats that they face. All events are free to attend and are suitable for adults of all abilities – a passion for marine life is all that’s required!

marineLIVE is delivered by the Biological Recording Company with funding from the British Ecological Society.

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Syrph-ing the Continents: Hoverflies, Our Unsung Agricultural Heroes

Syrphidae, commonly known as hover flies or flower flies, are an important family of true flies. This talk explored the diverse ecosystem services these flies provide throughout their life cycle, from pest control to pollination. A major focus is on hoverflies’ remarkable ability to migrate long distances, distributing these services across vast geographic areas.

While many questions remain about the migratory behaviour of species within this family, recent advances in technology and research methods are discussed that offer promising new insights. These developments give us hope for what lies ahead in uncovering the secrets of these small but mighty insects.

Q&A with Samm Reynolds

Samm Reynolds is a PhD candidate at the University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada. She studies native pollinator conservation in agriculture throughout southern Ontario and has a particular interest in native bees and syrphids (hover flies). Her goal is to understand pollinator-habitat interactions at a species level and to bring this research to the public through education campaigns and pushing for improved pollinator protection policy.

1. How far do hoverflies migrate?

The longest distance recorded for single hoverfly migration, based on stable isotope analysis, is a staggering 3,000 kilometres. This puts the maximum distance observed for hoverfly migration on par with that observed for the migration of dragonflies and butterflies. Remember that wind plays a crucial role in facilitating such long-distance movement – these migrations are definitely not entirely self-propelled! Such long-distance migration is far from the case for all hoverfly migrations, of course, and research generally suggests that the distance migrated is highly variable both between and within species.

2. Do both sexes of hoverflies migrate?

There is evidence to suggest that it is predominantly female hoverflies who migrate, or at least who migrate the furthest. There are definitely some males that migrate, but evidence shows that they aren’t as well equipped for long distant flying. This is because females are often more cold tolerant and also utilise something called ‘oogenesis-flight syndrome’ whereby they build up fat deposits rather than developing their ovaries which gives them long-term endurance for long-distance flights. When collecting hoverflies mid-migration, whilst the exact sex ratio varies by species, ratios are most often skewed towards females, especially at the “end point” of their migration.

3. How can we make agricultural habitats more welcoming for hoverflies?

The primary recommendation that we are making for agriculture right now is to maintain semi-natural habitats as part of farmland. Features like hedgerows are immensely useful for hoverflies, as are piles of rotting wood (which should ideally be left out, rather than cleared away), as are diverse local floral resources, as are forest edges. It is often feasible to conserve these features even on intensely farmed plots of land by constructing and maintaining them on marginal land, small pockets and along field boundaries. It’s also recommended to provide flowering resources for the entire season, hoverflies may not often stray too far and so having access to floral resources for their whole life cycle within a fairly small radius is really important.

Literature References

  1. Reynolds et al. (2024) ‘A comprehensive review of long-distance hover fly migration (Diptera: Syrphidae)’: https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/een.13373
  2. Jeekel and Overbeek (1968) ‘A migratory flight of hover-flies (Diptera, Syrphidae) observed in Austria. Beaufortia’: https://repository.naturalis.nl/pub/505147/BEAU1968015196001.pdf 
  3. Shannon (1926) ‘A preliminary report on the seasonal migrations of insects’: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25004127.pdf 
  4. Menz et al. (2019) ‘Quantification of migrant hoverfly movements (Diptera: Syrphidae) on the West coast of North America’: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rsos.190153 
  5. Stefanescu et al. (2013) ‘Multi-generational long-distance migration of insects: studying the painted lady butterfly in the Western Palaearctic’: https://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/21064/1/N021064PP.pdf 
  6. Jia et al. (2022) ‘Windborne migration amplifies insect-mediated pollination services’: https://elifesciences.org/articles/76230.pdf
  7. Kanazawa et al. (2015) ‘First migration record of chestnut Tiger butterfly, Parantica sita niphonica (Moore, 1883) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Danainae) from Japan to Hong Kong and longest recorded movement by the species’: https://bioone.org/journals/The-Pan-Pacific-Entomologist/volume-91/issue-1/2014-91.1.091/First-migration-record-of-Chestnut-Tiger-Butterfly-iParantica-sita-niphonica/10.3956/2014-91.1.091.short 
  8. Bauer et al. (2024) ‘Monitoring aerial insect biodiversity: A radar perspective’: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rstb.2023.0113 
  9. Hu et al. (2016) ‘Mass seasonal bioflows of high-flying insect migrants’: https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.aah4379 
  10. Gao et al. (2020) ‘Adaptive strategies of high-flying migratory hoverflies in response to wind currents’: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2020.0406
  11. Wotton et al. (2019) ‘Mass seasonal migrations of hoverflies provide extensive pollina- tion and crop protection services’: https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdfExtended/S0960-9822(19)30605-0 
  12. Ouin et al. (2011) ‘Can deuterium stable isotope values be used to assign the geographic origin of an auxiliary hoverfly in south-western France?: Geographic origin of an auxiliary hoverfly’: https://analyticalsciencejournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/rcm.5127 
  13. Clem et al. (2023) ‘Insights into natal origins of migratory Nearctic hover flies (Diptera: Syrphidae): new evidence from stable isotope (δ 2 H) assignment analyses’: https://nsojournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1111/ecog.06465 
  14. Dällenbach et al. (2018) ‘Higher flight activity in the offspring of migrants compared to residents in a migratory insect’: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rspb.2017.2829 
  15. Massy et al. (2021) ‘Hoverflies use a time-compensated sun compass to orientate during autumn migration’: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2021.1805 
  16. Svensson and Janzon (1984) ‘Why does the hoverfly Metasyrphus corollae migrate?’: https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2311.1984.tb00856.x 
  17. Clem et al. (2022) ‘Do Nearctic hover flies (Diptera: Syrphidae) engage in long-distance migration? An assessment of evidence and mechanisms’: https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ecm.1542 
  18. Hart and Bale (1997) ‘Cold tolerance of the aphid predator Episyrphus balteatus (DeGeer) (Diptera, Syrphidae)’: https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-3032.1997.tb01177.x 
  19. Hondelmann and Poehling (2007) ‘Diapause and overwintering of the hoverfly Episyrphus balteatus’: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1570-7458.2007.00568.x 
  20. Doyle et al. (2022) ‘Genome-wide transcriptomic changes reveal the genetic pathways involved in insect migration’: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/mec.16588  
  21. Francuski et al. (2013) ‘Landscape genetics and spatial pattern of phenotypic variation of Eristalis tenax across Europe’: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jzs.12017 
  22. Hondelmann et al. (2005) ‘Restriction fragment length polymorphisms of different DNA regions as genetic markers in the hoverfly Episyrphus balteatus (Diptera: Syrphidae)’: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-entomological-research/article/abs/restriction-fragment-length-polymorphisms-of-different-dna-regions-as-genetic-markers-in-the-hoverfly-episyrphus-balteatus-diptera-syrphidae/C1CD4F21556C1F978808841AF4BD24DC 
  23. Raymond et al. (2013) ‘Lack of genetic differentiation between contrasted overwintering strategies of a Major Pest predator Episyrphus balteatus (Diptera: Syrphidae): implications for biocontrol’: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0072997&type=printable 
  24. Raymond et al. (2013) ‘Migration and dispersal may drive to high genetic variation and significant genetic mixing: The case of two agriculturally important, continental hoverflies (Episyrphus balteatus and Sphaerophoria scripta)’: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0072997&type=printable 
  25. Liu et al. (2019) ‘Genome-wide developed microsatellites reveal a weak population differentiation in the hoverfly Eupeodes corollae (Diptera: Syrphidae) across China’: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0215888&type=printable 
  26. Davis et al. (2023) ‘Crop-pollinating Diptera have diverse diets and habitat needs in both larval and adult stages’: https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/eap.2859 
  27. Orford et al. (2015) ‘The forgotten flies: the importance of non-syrphid Diptera as pollinators’: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rspb.2014.2934 
  28. Landry and Parrott (2016) ‘Could the lateral transfer of nutrients by outbreaking insects lead to consequential landscape-scale effects?’: https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1002/ecs2.1265 
  29. Fisler and Marcacci (2022) ‘Tens of thousands of migrating hoverflies found dead on a strandline in the south of France’: https://publications.goettingen-research-online.de/handle/2/125027 
  30. Lv et al. (2023) ‘Changing patterns of the east Asian monsoon drive shifts in migration and abundance of a globally important rice pest’: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdfdirect/10.1111/gcb.16636

Further Info

entoLIVE

entoLIVE webinars feature guest invertebrate researchers delving into their own invertebrate research. All events are free to attend and are suitable for adults of all abilities – a passion for invertebrates is all that’s required!

entoLIVE is delivered by the Biological Recording Company in partnership with the British Entomological & Natural History Society, Royal Entomological Society and Amateur Entomologists’ Society, with support from Buglife, Field Studies Council and National Biodiversity Network Trust.

The entoLIVE programme is delivered by Biological Recording Company and receives sponsorship from the following organisations:

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Seagrass Conservation: Growing #GenerationRestoration in Europe

Seagrass conservation plays a critical role in maintaining planetary health. This presentation explores this role, before turning to how the recently founded European Seagrass Restoration Alliance (ESRA) is seeking to overcome existing barriers to the conservation, restoration and re-establishment of European seagrass meadows by providing a platform for the ESRA community to collaborate and engage in knowledge exchange. ESRA was founded to meet noth the challenges and opportunities presented by UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, and the EU Nature Restoration Law. In order to deliver on current marine restoration ambitions, unprecedented transnational collaboration, and the rapid development and deployment of novel innovations will be required.

Q&A with Dr Richard Lilley

Dr Richard Lilley started his research career studying sustainable supply chain management in small-scale capture fisheries. Here, seafood supply chains – on which local food security depends – are reliant on healthy natural coral reefs, seagrass meadows and mangrove forests. Becoming fascinated by the critical importance of seagrass meadows in particular, as both havens for biodiversity and nursery grounds for many commercially important fish species, Richard first cofounded a UK NGO called Project Seagrass (2013), before turning his attention to scaling up seagrass restoration in Europe (2024).

1. What is the minimum salinity for seagrass?

The answer depends on how you define the term seagrass. Different definitions mean that some scientists recognise around 60 species of seagrass worldwide whereas others recognise 72. Following the strict definition, seagrasses are flowering plant species which complete their entire reproductive cycle within the marine environment.

However, some scientists also include plant species which are not fully marine and are found in more brackish environments, e.g., estuaries. I explained in the talk that in Europe we generally recognise four species of seagrass (Posidonia oceanica, Cymodocea nodosa, Zostera marina and Zotera noltii). If you choose to follow a more expansive definition of seagrass then you could add a few extra species to that list, e.g. Ruppia maritima. These species are those that tend to be found in the freshwater-saltwater transition zone, places like estuaries or saltmarshes.

2. How are seagrass meadows designated for protection?

Legal protection for seagrass meadows varies by country. Sometimes it’s automatic. For example, in Scotland, all seagrass meadows are automatically protected as ‘Priority Marine Features’. However, for the meadow to qualify as a ‘feature’ it needs to cover an area of at least 5 metres by 5 metres in area – it can’t just be a single transient plant. Other countries have different laws. And, often the process of designation is a frustrating one. One unique challenge with designating seagrass meadows for areal protection is that some meadows move slowly over time due to the dynamism of the underlying sediment. Thus, the edges of a meadow may shift, shrink or expand over a span of years. This shifting process has been recognised for some of the Zostera noltii and Zostera marina meadows in British waters. However, it is less of a problem in the Mediterranean with Posidonia oceanica seagrass meadows because that species is very robust, slow-growing and long-lived, hence Posidonia oceanica meadows tend to have clear and relatively fixed edges.

3. What factors determine which seagrass species grow where?

It depends on many things. On a local scale, the most important factor is probably light availability, as regulated by water clarity, which is in turn determined by the amount of sediment in the water column. Posidonia oceanica can be found up to depths of 50 metres in the clearest waters of the Mediterranean, in contrast Zostera noltii and Zostera marina might only be found down to around 1–2 metres in the turbid mouths of major European estuaries or even in the intertidal zone. At a broader scale, tidal range is another key factor. The Mediterranean famously only has a tiny tidal range, hence in this environment there is relatively little physical stress imposed on seagrasses by the movement of water. This contrasts with, for example, the Atlantic, where the tidal range is much greater and therefore there is constant turbulence in the water to which seagrasses must adapt. Tidal differences and the availability of light for photosynthesis are key factor as to why the Mediterranean features a different dominant seagrass species to the coasts of the British Isles.

4. Is climate change negatively affecting the health of European seagrass meadows?

Yes, unfortunately, anthropogenic climate change is clearly impacting our seagrass meadows. That is because seagrass meadow persistence at a given site is dependent on the ambient water temperature. At some seagrass sites which are at the southern edge of a seagrass species ranges, we are seeing notable shifts in the seagrass community composition as warming waters begin to favour certain species over others. In Étang de Berre in France, for example, the dominant species prior to the 1960s was Zostera marina. This lagoon is right at the southern edge of Zostera marina’s global range, so as the climate has warmed, Zostera marina has notably declined at the site and has been replaced by the more warmth-tolerant Zostera noltii. Conversations are now being had, from a restoration perspective, about whether restoring Zostera marina beds is a worthwhile venture here. In a few decades, might the waters be simply too warm in summer for it to survive?

5. Has active restoration of seagrass meadows been successful so far?

It depends on how you qualify success. In terms of ecological success – i.e. has the restoration worked? – the success rate is variable. Some projects see excellent outcomes, e.g. >90% survival of seedlings after the first year of planting. Other projects have had very little success so far. It is worth nothing though that many of these projects are still in their infancy. What is consistently exciting is that success by other metrics, particularly in terms of civic engagement and public involvement with restoration and marine stewardship, seems to be getting better all the time. More and more people are being connected with ecosystem restoration every year. At least in the early years of these projects, this is arguably a more important goal. Restoration is always experimental in nature, and some failures should be expected along the journey. We need to be better embracing uncertainty in marine restoration which means shifting from fixed goals to more flexible outcomes. In my opinion the path to eventual long-term success is facilitated by the engagement of a community of dedicated restoration practitioners and we are excited that this community is steadily growing.

Literature References

  1. Unsworth et al. (2022) ‘The planetary role of seagrass conservation’: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abq6923
  2. Unsworth et al. (2018) ‘Seagrass meadows support global fisheries production’: https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12566
  3. Unsworth and Cullen (2010) ‘Recognising the necessity for Indo-Pacific seagrass conservation’: https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12566
  4. Preston et al. (2025) ‘Seascape connectivity: evidence, knowledge gaps and implications for temperate coastal ecosystem restoration practice and policy’: https://www.nature.com/articles/s44183-025-00128-3
  5. Wedding et al. (2025) ‘Five ways seascape ecology can help to achieve marine restoration goals’: https://research.rug.nl/en/publications/five-ways-seascape-ecology-can-help-to-achieve-marine-restoration

Further Info

marineLIVE

marineLIVE webinars feature guest marine biologists talking about their research into the various organisms that inhabit our seas and oceans, and the threats that they face. All events are free to attend and are suitable for adults of all abilities – a passion for marine life is all that’s required!

marineLIVE is delivered by the Biological Recording Company with funding from the British Ecological Society.

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